Patriarchy and Masculinity: How Male Power is Maintained

Patriarchy and masculinity are two deeply interconnected systems that shape societies worldwide. Patriarchy establishes men as the primary holders of power, while masculinity defines the qualities and behaviors expected of men. Together, these systems create and maintain gender hierarchies that affect everyone-both women and men. Understanding how patriarchy and masculinity work together is essential for building a more equal society.

How patriarchy and masculinity reinforce each other 🔗

Patriarchy operates as a social system where men hold primary positions of authority across political leadership, moral authority, and control of property. It’s not simply about individual men being powerful, but about systematic structures that privilege men as a group. Masculinity becomes the cultural script that teaches men how to occupy these positions of power.

From childhood, boys learn what it means to be masculine through family, peers, schools, and media. They receive messages that to be a “real man” means being tough, dominant, unemotional, and in control. The concept of hegemonic masculinity, developed by sociologist R.W. Connell, describes how certain forms of masculinity become culturally idealized and dominant. These dominant masculinities emphasize aggression, competitiveness, emotional suppression, and control over women.

This creates a reinforcing cycle. Patriarchy elevates certain masculine traits as superior, and men who embody these traits gain social rewards and power. Women, meanwhile, are positioned as subordinate-defined by what they lack in comparison to this masculine ideal. The system doesn’t just create inequality between men and women; it also establishes hierarchies among men themselves, with those who don’t conform to hegemonic masculinity facing marginalization.

The role of social institutions 🔗

Social institutions play a critical role in maintaining this system. Schools, workplaces, religious organizations, and legal systems all contribute to reinforcing patriarchal masculinity. Research shows that hegemonic masculinity operates through culture, institutions, and persuasion rather than just force. Boys learn masculine norms through educational experiences, sports, and peer interactions, while girls learn complementary feminine roles.

The gender binary itself-the rigid division between masculine and feminine-is central to how patriarchy functions. By constantly differentiating between masculinity and femininity and positioning the masculine as superior, patriarchal systems maintain power hierarchies. Men gain what Connell termed the “patriarchal dividend”-the benefits that come from women’s subordination, even if individual men don’t actively seek these advantages.

Consequences for women and men 🔗

The harm patriarchy causes to women is well-documented and visible. Women face limited opportunities for education, career advancement, and political participation. They experience higher rates of gender-based violence, economic discrimination, and restricted personal freedoms. Patriarchal structures systematically devalue women’s work, particularly domestic labor and caregiving, while limiting their access to resources and decision-making power.

What receives less attention is how patriarchal masculinity also restricts and harms men. While men as a group benefit from patriarchal systems, the pressure to conform to restrictive masculine ideals comes at significant cost. Men who adhere to traditional masculine norms experience poorer mental health outcomes, including higher rates of anxiety and depression.

Mental health and emotional suppression 🔗

From an early age, boys receive messages to suppress emotions other than anger. Phrases like “boys don’t cry” and “man up” teach them that expressing vulnerability, sadness, or fear is unacceptable-equated with femininity and weakness. This emotional restriction has serious consequences. Men become less able to identify and process their own emotions, struggle to form intimate relationships, and face barriers to seeking help when they need it.

Research demonstrates that toxic masculinity, defined as the over-exaggeration of masculine norms that perpetuate misogyny, strongly correlates with restrictive emotionality. Men who strongly endorse these norms find it harder to express feelings and are less likely to seek mental health support. This contributes to alarming statistics: men die by suicide at rates more than three times higher than women.

Violence and aggression 🔗

Patriarchal masculinity often links manhood to the capacity for violence and aggression. While not all masculinity is violent, certain forms of hegemonic masculinity explicitly incorporate violence as a means of establishing dominance and control. Men face pressure to prove their masculinity through physical toughness, risk-taking behaviors, and the willingness to use force.

This has consequences for both women and men. Women bear the brunt of male violence through intimate partner abuse, sexual assault, and harassment. But men also suffer. They face higher rates of violent injury and death, engage in more dangerous behaviors, and are less likely to seek healthcare when injured. The expectation that men should be invulnerable and tough discourages them from taking care of their physical and mental health.

Restricted life choices 🔗

Patriarchal masculinity limits men’s choices in multiple domains. Men face social sanctions for pursuing careers in caregiving, early childhood education, or other fields deemed “feminine.” Those who want to be actively involved fathers may face workplace discrimination or social skepticism. Research indicates that men who become sole financial providers experience worse mental health outcomes than those who share financial responsibilities, yet face increased distress if their wives earn more.

Men who deviate from heterosexual norms, show emotional sensitivity, or express interest in traditionally feminine activities face ridicule, bullying, and sometimes violence. This policing of masculinity occurs among men themselves, as they monitor each other for violations of masculine norms. The system thus restricts the full range of human expression and experience available to men.

Challenging patriarchal masculinity 🔗

Dismantling patriarchal masculinity requires multi-level interventions that address individual attitudes, social norms, and structural inequalities. Change is possible, but it demands sustained effort across multiple domains.

Education and awareness 🔗

Transformation begins with education that challenges traditional gender norms. Gender-transformative programming works to deconstruct the gender binary and expose how masculinity and femininity are socially constructed rather than natural. Programs that encourage critical reflection help men and boys recognize how patriarchal norms limit both women and men.

Effective interventions create spaces where men can explore vulnerability without judgment. They use participatory methods that allow men to examine their own experiences, question rigid masculine expectations, and develop more flexible gender identities. The Macho Factory program in Sweden exemplifies this approach, using films and interactive exercises to help young people critically examine masculinity norms and their connection to violence.

Engaging men and boys 🔗

Men must be active participants in gender equality efforts. This means more than just changing individual men’s attitudes-it requires men to use their privilege to challenge sexist behaviors, speak out against inequality, and model alternative forms of masculinity. Encouraging men to embrace vulnerability and express emotions helps break down the rigid masculine ideal that harms everyone.

Working with men should not come at the expense of centering women’s experiences and needs. Effective approaches recognize that men and women must work together to transform gender relations. Programs that engage both men and women in critical reflection on gender achieve better outcomes than those working with either group alone.

Structural and institutional change 🔗

Individual attitude change alone is insufficient. Systemic barriers embedded in patriarchal structures require holistic interventions. This includes reforming legal systems that perpetuate gender inequalities, implementing policies that support work-family balance for all genders, challenging gender segregation in education and employment, and addressing economic inequalities that keep women dependent on men.

Research across multiple countries demonstrates that increasing women’s political representation alone doesn’t guarantee equality if patriarchal norms remain unchanged. True transformation requires both changing who holds power and transforming the norms and behaviors that perpetuate inequality.

Building alternative masculinities 🔗

Rather than rejecting masculinity entirely, the goal is to promote forms of masculinity that aren’t based on domination, emotional restriction, or violence. This means validating caregiving, emotional expression, cooperation, and equality as masculine traits. It means celebrating men who choose careers in nursing, teaching, or social work. It means supporting fathers who take parental leave and actively participate in childcare.

Creating change requires patience and persistence. Patriarchal systems have existed for centuries and won’t disappear overnight. But examples from countries like Sweden show that significant progress is possible when there’s sustained commitment to gender equality through policy, education, and cultural change. The work of dismantling patriarchal masculinity ultimately benefits everyone by creating societies where all people can thrive regardless of gender.

What do you think? How have you observed patriarchal masculinity operating in your own communities? What strategies do you think would be most effective for challenging these systems in your context?

References

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarchy
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegemonic_masculinity
3. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4706037/
4. https://therapist.com/society-and-culture/how-patriarchy-toxic-masculinity-hurt-men/
5. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886925004210
6. https://survivors.org/how-toxic-masculinity-harms-men/
7. https://reliefweb.int/report/world/challenging-patriarchy-gender-equality-and-humanitarian-principles
8. https://www.nextgenmen.ca/blog/why-patriarchy-hurts-men-too
9. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12147-025-09351-1
10. https://www.international-alert.org/publications/breaking-the-gender-trap-challenging-patriarchal-norms-to-clear-pathways-for-peace/